The oldest instruments...
All
over the world, archeologists list simple idiophones as the
first prehistoric musical instruments. This includes rattles,
scrapers, and bone flutes (without holes). The neolithic strata
contains slit drums, flutes (with holes), shell trumpets,
and musical bows. The paleolithic strata yields basket rattles,
xylophones, flutes, friction sticks. These early instruments,
at least the instruments which survived, often resemble tools
that early society utilized. In India, the doddu rajan, found
among the Savaras, resembles a fire producing implement (a
tool to create heat by friction). This type of scraper, also
found as the kokara among the Palayans of Kerala perhaps became
the Palayans' scraper, and used in the music of exorcism.
Earthen
pots, used for cooking and storing grain, served as percussion
instruments. Examples are the noot, rouf (Kashmir), matki
(Rajastan), gugri, gagra (north India), ghatam (south India).
Since many of these instruments, built out of perishable materials,
did not leave evidence for us to trace their history, we rely
on sculptures, paintings, and manuscripts which depict or
describe them.
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The
seals of the Mohenjodaro
The
seals of the Mohenjodaro Indus valley civilization contain
depictions of men playing long cylindrical drums hung around
their necks played horizontally. These drums are most similar
to the kharrang of Assam and with the dhole of the Reddis
of Andra Pradesh. Other drums inscribed on the seals include
an hour glass shaped drum like the hudukka, castanets and
cymbals. Some arched harps found in their hieroglyphics and
unearthed clay whistles demonstrate they developed a tonal
system, but no literature exists which we can translate in
order to learn about that system.
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Vedic
literature
Our
first documentation of music occurs in the Vedic scriptures,
of the Aryan culture. The most ancient Vedic literature describes
drums covered with the skins of wild animals, large earthen
drums, and the role of the drums in various rituals. The bhumi-dundubhi,
a giant earth drum, consisting of a hallow pit covered with
skin, struck by legs of wood, signaled danger or approaching
enemies with its thunderous and deep resonating pitch. Vedic
singers used the dundhubi, a drum formed out of hallow tree
trunks with the upper part covered with skin.
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Literature
from the Nardiyasiksa and the Natyasastra.
A
great deal of our musical knowledge of India stems from the
Nardiyasiksa (written approximately around 100 B.C.E.) and
Bharata's Natyasastra, a later work during that period which
offers a scientific approach (also called: the Natyaveda,
panchamaveda, gamdarvaveda, or the "fifth" veda).
Naradiysiksa, describes vedic and ghandharva music. It states
that semi-divine ghandharva music is composed of three elements:
svara, tala, and pada. Narad describes the essentials of vocal
and instrumental music. In the 31st and 32nd chapters, the
Natyasastra gives descriptions of tala, the fundamental aspects
of India rhythm. According to Bharata, tala was known as 'ghana'
and time as 'kala'. Laya, called kalapata, subdivided into
vilamvita (slow), madhya (medium), and druta (fast). Kala
divided into three parts, citra (two matras), vartika (four
mantras), and daksima (eight mantras). Bharata stated that
tala, or time unit, was known as the measurement of kala,
('kala kala pramanena tala ityabhdhiyate' 31.7). Two kinds
of talas existed, n'sabda (soundless or beatless), and sa'sabda
(with sound or beat). The soundless tala again subdivided
into 4 kinds: samya, tala, dhruva, and sannipata. Other terminology
regarding rhythm included: yati (a method of applying a tempo
of a tala -- of which they had several kinds: sama, srotogata,
gopuccha, damaru, pipilika), prakarana (to make a song ready
for singing), satala (with any rhythm), atala (without rhythm).
With such terminology they clearly developed a complicated
rhythmic system. This originated before the classical music
age (600 to 500 B.C.E.), as ghandharva music became obsolete
before the Bharata period. Ghandharva music provides the link
between vedic music and post-vedic marga type of music (which
evolved around 700 B.C.E., and provides insight to the classical
period as well.
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During
the classical and post-classical period...
The
classical or post-classical period featured drums with complex
designs, like the puskara, bhanda, panava, and mrdanga. The
ancient dhundubhi became a prototype for these drums, as well
as, the bhanda vadya, the modern pakhawaj and the khole. The
puskara consisted of three drums, two horizontal and one leaning
drum. They tuned these drums to defined pitches (gandhama,
sadja, and pancama -- the tones considered as the primal ones
of the gama or 'scales'). The bhanda vadya, mrdanga, and the
pakhawaj all have similar designs. Played horizontally, these
barrel shaped (almost cylindrical) drums, feature a tuned
multi-layered composite membranes covering both ends (connected
by leather straps).
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Other
drums found in India during this period...
Other
drums found in India during this period include the madal
which features a similar but less sophisticated design. This
drum is found among the Santals, Oraons, Baigans, and Ghasias
(all the non-Aryan people of the central Indian belt). Similar
drums existed throughout India with variations on this name:
maddale (Kannada), madol (Bengalic), mandar (Hindi), mardal
(Sanskrit), maddelam (Tamil). Other double membrane drums
from this period include: the tavil (Tamil), the pung (Manipur),
and the khole (Bengal).
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Origins
of the tabla, and development to present day.
The
tabla developed as a hybridized drum, influenced by all of
these varieties, in particular, the mrdangm and the puskara.
Muktesvara temple (6th-7th century) and Bhuranesvara (and
three other cave temples) of Badari in Bombay (6th century)
contain depictions of the Puskara. Musicians often placed
the puskara's smaller verticle drum (called 'alinga'), on
their lap and played more than one drum at a time. Given the
the design, technology, and musical structure for drums common
in this this period, we can piece together numerious features
of the tabla.
The name 'tabla', probably derived from the Arabic word for
a drum (generic), called the 'tabl'; and possibly to some
extent the Turkish word 'dawal'. Another popular notion is
that Amir Khursuro invented the tabla by splitting the Pakawaj
into two drums. This is highly disputed. Abul Fazil, the court
recorder neither mentions nor describes the tabla, leaving
doubt that Amir Khursuro invented the tabla, contrary to a
previously popular notion. The Muslim invaders undoubtedly
influenced the culture and structure of the tabla. However,
the earliest depictions and literature describing the tabla
as we recognize it today come from the 18th century.
Details available from this point on enable us to chart the
development to modern day. Over the last two centuries the
tabla begins to take the forefront of percussion instruments
in north Indian classical music. We can trace the family lineage
of the gharanas from the 18th century onward. Over this time,
the tabla slowly changed, the dayan decreasing in size while
the bayan increased. During this time the instrument slowly
became the primary drum for both classical and popular music
of north India.
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